Izvorni kod stranice Nikola Kopernik

{{Infokutija naučnik
| ime = Nikola Kopernik
| slika = Copernicus.jpg
| opis_slike = Nikola Kopernik, astronom
| datum_rođenja = [[19. 2.|19. februar]] [[1473]].
| mjesto_rođenja = [[Torun]], [[Kraljevina Poljska (1025–1385)|Kraljevina Poljska]]
| datum_smrti = {{dda|1543|5|24|1473|2|19|df=y}}
| mjesto_smrti = [[Frombork]], [[Kraljevina Poljska (1025–1385)|Kraljevina Poljska]]
| država_smrti = 
| polje = [[teologija]], [[matematika]], [[medicina]] i [[astronomija]]
| škola = [[Jagelonski univerzitet]], [[Univerzitet u Bolonji]], [[Univerzitet u Padovi]]
| mentor = 
| institucija = 
| akademija = 
| studenti = 
| poznat_po = [[Heliocentrizam|heliocentrizmu]]
| nagrade = 
| napomene = 
}}

[[Datoteka:Apparent retrograde motion.gif|mini|desno|300px|Kretanje [[Sunce|Sunca]] (žuto), [[Zemlja|Zemlje]] (plavo) i [[Mars]]a (crveno) prema [[heliocentrični sustav|heliocentričnom sustavu]] (lijevo) i [[geocentrični sustav|geocentričnom sustavu]] (desno). <br />
Napomena: putanje planeta su kružnice prema '''Kopernikovom sustavu''' i putanja Marsa je 2 godine (umjesto stvarnih 1.88 [[godina]]) zbog jednostavnosti.]]
[[Datoteka:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.jpg|mini|desno|300px|Naslovnica drugog izdanja Kopernikovog djela ''O vrtnji nebeskih krugova'' ([[Latinski jezik|lat]].''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'') tiskanog [[1566.]] g. u [[Basel]]u.]] 
[[Datoteka: Positional astronomy.svg|mini|desno|300px|Skica pokazuje [[elongacija|elongacije]] ([[kut]]eve između [[Sunce|Sunca]] i [[planet]]a) s obzirom na položaj [[Zemlja|Zemlje]] u odnosu na Sunce.]]

'''Nikola Kopernik''' ([[poljski jezik|poljski]]: '''Mikołaj Kopernik''', [[Latinski jezik|lat]]. ''Nicholas Copernicus'') (Thorn ([[Toruń]]), [[19. februar]] [[1473]]. - (Frauenburg) [[Frombork]], [[24. maj]] [[1543]].), [[Poljska|poljski]] [[astronom]] iz [[Kraljevina Pruska|Kraljevine Pruske]] koja je od [[1466.]] pripadala [[Kraljevina Poljska (1025–1385)|Kraljevini Poljskoj]].<ref name="Dzieje nauki polskiej"/><ref name="plato.stanford"/><ref name="psb4"/> Iz redova je [[isusovci|isusovaca]].

Između [[1491]]. - [[1494]]. studirao je [[teologija|teologiju]], [[matematika|matematiku]], [[medicina|medicinu]] i [[astronomija|astronomiju]] u [[Krakov|Krakówu]].<ref>[http://www.svetplus.com/vesti/24551/nikola-kopernik:-bez-njega-bi-svemir-bio-neshvacen „Nikola Kopernik: Bez njega bi svemir bio nešvaćen“], S. P., ''svetplus.com'', 19. februar [[2013]]. Pristupljeno [[3. decembar|3. decembra]] 2013.</ref> Od [[1496]]. do [[1504]]. studirao je [[Kanonsko pravo (Katolička crkva)|kanonsko pravo]] ([[Univerzitet u Bologni]]), [[astronomija|astronomiju]]([[Jagelonski univerzitet]], Kraków) i medicinu u [[Italija|Italiji]]. Poslije je bio do [[1512]]. godine [[liječnik]] i tajnik svom ujaku, varmijskom biskupu (''Warmia'', poljska crkvena kneževina na ušću [[Visla|Visle]]), onda do kraja svog života je bio svećenik u ''Fromborku (ondašnji Frauenburg)'', gdje je na jednoj kuli tvrđave, koja je okruživala crkvu, uredio [[zvjezdarnica|zvjezdarnicu]] ([[Kopernikov toranj]]) s koje je promatrao nebeska gibanja. Na temelju tih promatranja, a i rezultata do kojih je došao, napisao je djelo ''O vrtnji nebeskih krugova'' ([[Latinski jezik|lat]]. ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'') u 6 knjiga, objavljeno u [[Nürnberg]]u [[1543]]. godine, neposredno pred smrt.<ref>[http://www.virtualnigrad.com/Nikola_Kopernik-160-12718 „Nikola Kopernik“] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113200315/http://www.virtualnigrad.com/Nikola_Kopernik-160-12718 |date=2013-11-13 }}, ''virtualnigrad.com''. Pristupljeno 3. decembra 2013.</ref> Ovo djelo bijaše revolucionarna prekretnica u [[astronomija|astronomiji]], te je bilo poticajem kapitalnih otkrića [[Johannes Kepler|Keplera]] i [[Isaac Newton|Newtona]].<ref>[http://znanost.geek.hr/clanak/nikola-kopernik/ „Nikola Kopernik“], ''http://znanost.geek.hr'', [[25. januar]] [[2010]]. Pristupljeno 3. decembra 2013.</ref>

Kopernikov ili [[heliocentrični sustav]] svijeta zasniva se na tvrdnjama da se [[Zemlja (planet)|Zemlja]] okreće oko svoje osi i da kruži oko [[Sunce|Sunca]].<ref>[http://www.zivotopis.hr/biografija/nikola-kopernik/ „Nikola Kopernik - biografija“] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523040203/http://www.zivotopis.hr/biografija/nikola-kopernik/ |date=2013-05-23 }}, ''zivotopis.hr''. Pristupljeno 3. decembra 2013.</ref> Ove tvrdnje su uskoro bile prihvaćene u [[znanost|znanstvenim]] krugovima, ali su ujedno uzrokovale uzbunu u crkvenim krugovima. Stoga je papa [[1616]]. ovo Kopernikovo djelo zabranio, tj. stavio na index, sve do [[1822]]. Valja reći i da su ostale kršćanske sljedbe (npr. [[kalvinizam]]) bile protiv heliocentričnoga sustava, a da ga je i odbacivao nemali dio znanstevnika onoga doba (npr. [[Francis Bacon]]) zbog korelacije s mjerenjima koja nije, u to doba, bila bolja od geocentričnoga ili [[Ptolomejev sustav|Ptolomejeva sustava]].

Nikola Kopernik pokopan je u [[Katedrala|katedrali]] u Fromborku na sjeveru Poljske. Međutim, sve do [[2005.]] godine točno mjesto njegovog ukopa nije bilo poznato, a te godine ga je utvrdio [[arheologija|arheolog]] Jerzy Gassowski, što je kasnije i potvrđeno identifikacijom. 23. svibnja [[2010.]] Kopernik je ponovno pokopan u istoj katedrali, ali uz zasluženu svečanost i na poznatu mjestu.<ref>[http://novine.novilist.hr/Default.asp?WCI=Rubrike&WCU=285A285B2863285D2863285A2858285928582863289B289E28912892288D289C28632863285C2861285C285E285F286028632863286328592863W Novi list o ponovnom pokopu Nikole Kopernika]</ref>

== Kopernikov sistem ==
Nikola Kopernik je na samome kraju svoga života objavio djelo ''O vrtnji nebeskih krugova'' ([[Latinski jezik|lat]]. ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'') u kojem zagovara [[heliocentrični sustav|heliocentrični model svemira]], tj. onaj u kojem je [[Sunce]], a ne [[Zemlja]], postavljena u njegovo središte.<ref name="ReferenceA">Gingerich, O. "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?" Journal for the History of Astronomy, Vol.16, NO.1/FEB, P. 37, 1985</ref> Kopernik je promijenio i [[kalendar]] zbog pomicanja proljetne točke uslijed [[precesija|precesije]] (pomicanja Zemljine osi vrtnje). Također, utvrđuje postojanje trostrukoga gibanja Zemlje: njezinu rotaciju oko osi, revoluciju (gibanje Zemlje oko Sunca) i precesiju Zemljine osi. Ostali se planeti, smatra Kopernik, gibaju po [[kružnica]]ma oko Sunca, a [[Mjesec]] ne smatra planetom. Iako je izbjegao progon i [[Inkvizicija|inkviziciju]], jer mu je kapitalno djelo tiskano pred kraj života, njegovo je djelo raspirilo žestoke rasprave, sukobe i promjene.<ref>[http://ahyco.uniri.hr/povijestfizike/renesansa_mehanika.htm] Ivan Supek: "Povijest fizike", ahyco.uniri.hr, 2014.</ref>

Nikola Kopernik je bio vrstan [[matematika|matematičar]] i promatrač. Heliocentrični sustav prikazao je kao matematički zaokruženu i utemeljenu [[teorija|teoriju]], koja se opravdala rezultatima promatranja. Izvedene tablice gibanja [[planet]]a i [[Mjesec]]a veoma su se točno ostvarivale. Kopernik je raskinuo sa suštinom [[Klaudije Ptolemej|Ptolomejeva]] [[geocentrični sustav|geocentričnog sustava]]. Zemlju je svrstao u jednaki red s drugim planetima. Učinio je to time što je u predodžbi Ptolomejeva sustava zamijenio mjesta Zemlje (zajedno s Mjesečevom stazom) i Sunca. Zemlja je treći po redu planet u sustavu gdje središnje mjesto zauzima Sunce ([[Sunčev sustav]]). [[Zvijezde]] su odmaknute na vrlo velike daljine. No ne samo to. S redoslijedom planeta povezana su i gibanja. Dnevno gibanje neba rastumačeno je obrtanjem Zemlje oko vlastite osi, a godišnje gibanje neba i Sunca obilaženjem Zemlje oko Sunca. Postojalo je i treće gibanje, [[precesija|precesijsko]] gibanje Zemljine osi koje je mnogo lakše ugraditi u taj sustav nego u geocentrični, ali koje sam Kopernik nije do kraja shvatio.

Tvrdnjama [[stara Grčka|starogrčkih]] [[Filozofija|filozofa]] da glomazna Zemlja mora biti nepokretna suprostavljene su protutvrdnje iste naravi: ako se Zemlja ne bi mogla gibati oko Sunca, kako bi se tek onda mogla gibati beskonačna [[sfera]] zvijezda oko male Zemlje?! Kopernikovo doba razlikovalo se od [[antika|antičkog]] u shvaćanju [[fizika]]lnih pojava, pa je Kopernik mogao ispravno tvrditi da je [[težina]] nešto što je uzrokom da su [[Nebesko tijelo|nebeska tijela]] oblikovana u [[kugla|kugle]].

Formalna obrada koju je Kopernik dao sustavu ne razlikuje se mnogo od obrade Ptolomejeva geocentričnog sustava (time je novi sustav lakše i prihvaćen). Zadržana su [[Kružno gibanje|kružna gibanja]] planeta, s epiciklima i deferentima. Za sve je planete Kopernik našao da je [[polumjer]] epicikla 3 puta manji od razmaka Sunca i centra deferenta. Broj kružnica nije Kopernikovim zahvatom bitnije smanjen, od 80 na 34, no i takvim je načinom uspjelo matematički opravdati heliocentrični sustav unutar točnosti kojom su tada vršena opažanja. Osim toga heliocentrični sustav ima znatne prednosti pred geocentričnim. Tako je Koperniku uspjelo da izvede srednje udaljenosti planeta od Sunca, mjerene Zemljinom srednjom udaljenošću. Stvarnu udaljenost Zemlje od Sunca, Kopernik nije poznavao točnije od [[Klaudije Ptolomej|Klaudija Ptolomeja]].

=== Određivanje srednjih udaljenosti planeta ===
Kopernik je raspolagao metodom kojom se određuju srednje [[Duljina|udaljenosti]] [[planet]]a od [[Sunce|Sunca]], mjerene srednjom udaljenosti [[Zemlja|Zemlje]]. Metoda je dosta jednostavna s obzirom na unutarnje planete blize Suncu. Kut najveće [[elongacija|elongacije]] (najveći kutni otklon planeta od Sunca) izravno je povezan s udaljenosti planeta od Sunca i udaljenosti Zemlje od Sunca. [[Tangenta]] na stazu planeta povučena sa Zemlje pokazuje smjer u kojemu je planet najviše otklonjen od Sunca. Kako je u slučaju [[kružnica|kružnice]] tangenta okomita ne njezin [[polumjer]], to je [[trokut]] Zemlja – planet – Sunce pravokutan, pa vrijedi:

:<math>a = a_Z sin \vartheta\,</math>
gdje je: ''a'' - srednja udaljenost unutarnjeg planeta od Sunca, ''a<sub>Z</sub>'' - srednja udaljenost Zemlje od Sunca i ''ϑ'' – kut najveće elongacije.

Ako [[Planetarna putanja|planetske staze]] nisu kružnice s centrom u Suncu, odnosno uopće nisu [[kružnica|kružnice]], najveća će elongacija ovisiti o dijelu staze koji dotiče [[tangenta]], no iz više mjerenih najvećih elongacija određuje se srednja udaljenost unutarnjeg planeta od Sunca ''a'' pomoću udaljenosti Zemlja – Sunce ''a<sub>Z</sub>'' kao mjernom jedinicom.

Da bi se odredile srednje udaljenosti vanjskih planeta (koji su udaljeniji od Sunca u odnosu na Zemlju), mora se izmijeniti uloga Zemlje i planeta. Znači, treba naći [[kut]] najveće elongacije pod kojim bi promatrač s nekog drugog planeta vidio Zemlju! Zadatak se rješava u načelu jednako kao i za unutarnje planete, no s mnogo složenijom geometrijskom analizom, a Kopernik ju je proveo na temelju podataka s kojima je raspolagao.

Tablica ispod pokazuje Kopernikove i današnje rezultate (osnova je udaljenost Zemlje od Sunca ''a<sub>Z</sub>''):

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!Qu|Odnos ''a/a<sub>Z</sub>''||Kopernik||Danas
|-align = "center"
|[[Merkur]]||0.376||0.387
|-align = "center"
|[[Venera]]||0.7196||0.723  		
|-align = "center"
|[[Mars]]||1.52||1.524  		
|-align = "center"
|[[Jupiter]]||5.217||5.203 
|-align = "center"
|[[Saturn]]||9.184||9.54			
|}

=== Određivanje sideričkih godina ===
U novom heliocentričnom sustavu trebalo je uvesti novu [[astronomija|astronomsku]] veličinu, a to je [[zvjezdana godina|zvjezdana ili siderička godina]]. [[Tropska godina|Sinodička godina]] je [[ophodno vrijeme]] u kojem se ponovi isti položaj planeta i Zemlje u odnosu na Sunce, dakle razdoblje ponavljanja istih položaja tih triju tijela, i neposredno se mjeri kao osobina prividnog [[Planetarna putanja|planetskog kretanja]]. Zbog Zemljinog kretanja oko Sunca, siderički i sinodički periodi nebeskih tijela se razlikuju. Dakle sinodička godina ne prestavlja samo osobinu nekog planeta, već ovisi i o tome kako se Zemlja giba oko Sunca. Siderička godina je vrijeme ophoda planeta oko Sunca u [[koordinatni sustav|koordinatnom sustavu]] koji je vezan za daleke [[zvijezde]], a centar ima u Suncu. Takav je period istinska [[fizikalna veličina]] koja pripada samo planetu. S druge strane siderička godina se ne može mjeriti izravno, pa je treba računski odrediti.

Pretpostavimo da se [[planet]]i gibaju stalnim [[brzina]]ma po [[kružnica|kružnici]] (vidi sliku desno). Zamislimo unutarnji planet (npr. [[Venera]]) u donjoj [[Konjunkcija (astronomija)|konjukciji]] (položaj 1) i pratimo njegovo kretanje i kretanje Zemlje oko Sunca, sve do trenutka iduće donje konjukcije. Planet se nalazi na kraćoj stazi i giba se brže, pa će prevaliti puni kut i još kut ''A'' do ponovne donje konjukcije (položaj 2). Do tog položaja protekla je jedna sinodička godina planeta ''S''. Zemlja se u isto vrijeme ''S'' putanjom pomakla samo za kut ''A'', a za vlastitu sideričku godinu ''Z'' imala bi prevaliti puni [[kut]]. Tom tvrdnjom iskazali smo odnos:

:<math> \frac{A}{360^o} \,=\, \frac{S}{Z} \!</math>

Kut od 360° planet prelazi u svojoj sideričkoj godini ''P''. Kut 360° + ''A'' planet je prešao za vrijeme sinodičke godine, a sam kut ''A'' prešao je za vrijeme koje je jednako razlici sinodičke i sideričke godine. Time je izražen odnos:

:<math> \frac{A}{360^o} \,=\, \frac{S - P}{Z} \!</math>

Izjednače li se desne strane tih odnosa, izlazi za donje ili unutarnje planete:

:<math> \frac{1}{P} \,=\, \frac{1}{Z} \,+\, \frac{1}{S} \!</math>
gdje je: ''P'' - siderička godina unutarnjeg planeta; ''Z'' - siderička godina Zemlje; ''S'' - sinodička godina unutarnjeg planeta.

Za izračunavanje sideričke godine vanjskih (gornjih) planeta treba da u jednadžbi zamijenimo mjesta Zemlje i planeta. Ono što je Zemlja za unutarnji planet, to je vanjski planet za Zemlju! Tada se dobiva za gornje ili vanjske planete:

:<math> \frac{1}{P} \,=\, \frac{1}{Z} \,-\, \frac{1}{S} \!</math>
gdje je: ''P'' - siderička godina vanjskog planeta; ''Z'' - siderička godina Zemlje; ''S'' - sinodička godina vanjskog planeta.

Sinodička godina u tim odnosima je '''srednja sinodička godina'''. Inače se vrijeme između dva ista razmještaja Zemlje, planeta i Sunca mijenja zbog izduženosti staza i kretanja planeta s nejednakom brzinom po stazi.<ref>Vladis Vujnović : "Astronomija", Školska knjiga, 1989.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
!Qu|[[Planet]]||[[Tropska godina|Sinodička godina]]||[[Zvjezdana godina|Siderička (zvjezdana) godina]]
|-align = "center"
|[[Merkur]]||115.9 [[dan]]a||88 dana  		
|-align = "center"
|[[Venera]]||583.9 d||224.7 d  	
|-align = "center"
|[[Zemlja]]|| - ||365.26 d			
|-align = "center"
|[[Mars]]||780 d||687 d  				
|-align = "center"
|[[Jupiter]]||399 d||11.86 [[godina]]   		
|-align = "center"
|[[Saturn]]||378 d||29.46 g	
|-align = "center"
|[[Uran]]||370 d||84.01 g   	
|-align = "center"
|[[Neptun]]||367.5 d||164.8 g	
|-align = "center"
|[[Pluton]]||366.7 d||247.7 g    								
|}

== Povezano ==
* [[Aristarh sa Samosa]]
* [[Kopernik (krater)]]
* [[Univerzitet Nikole Kopernika]]

== Reference ==
{{izvori|2|refs=

<ref name="Dzieje nauki polskiej">{{cite book |title= Dzieje nauki polskiej|last= Iłowiecki|first= Maciej|language=Polish |date= 1981|publisher= Wydawnictwo Interpress|location= Warszawa|isbn= 83-223-1876-6|page= 40|pages= |url= |accessdate=}}</ref>

<ref name="plato.stanford">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/#1 |author=Sheila Rabin |title=Nicolaus Copernicus |accessdate=22 April 2007 |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

<ref name="psb4">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 4.</ref>

<!--
<ref name="O historii i o współczesności">{{cite web |url=http://glos.uni.torun.pl/2003/05/historia/|title=''O historii i o współczesności'' (On History and the Present Day)|accessdate=22 April 2007 |language=Polish |author=Melkowski, Stefan |date=May 2003}}</ref>

<ref name="100 Percent">{{cite news |url=http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2005-11-03-copernicus-grave_x.htm |title=Copernicus' grave found in Polish church |accessdate=26 July 2012 |work=USA Today |date=3 November 2005}}</ref>

<ref name="archive">[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer]] [https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/319/mode/1up (1953, p. 319)].</ref>

<ref name="archive38">[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer]] (1953, [https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/134/mode/2up pp. 135–48]); [[#Reference-Heath-1913|Heath (1913)]], [https://archive.org/stream/aristarchusofsam00heatuoft#page/301/mode/2up pp. 301–8)]</ref>

<ref name="archive39">[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer (1953)]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/40/mode/2up pp. 40–52]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton (2004, p. 20)]].</ref>

<ref name="archive40">[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer (1953)]], [https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/122/mode/2up pp. 123–35]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton (2004, p. 24)]].</ref>

<ref name="archive48">Decree of the General Congregation of the Index, 5 March 1616, translated from the Latin by Finocchiaro [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|(1989, pp. 148–149)]]. An [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#indexdecree on-line copy] of Finocchiaro's translation has been made available by Gagné [[#Reference-Gagne-2005|(2005)]].</ref>

<ref name="armitage51">Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', p. 51.</ref>

<ref name="armitage55">Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', p. 55.</ref>

<ref name="armitage75–77">Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', pp. 75–77.</ref>

<ref name="armitage91">"Copernicus seems to have drawn up some notes [on the displacement of good coin from circulation by debased coin] while he was at [[Olsztyn]] in 1519. He made them the basis of a report on the matter, written in German, which he presented to the Prussian Diet held in 1522 at [[Grudziądz]]... He later drew up a revised and enlarged version of his little treatise, this time in Latin, and setting forth a general theory of money, for presentation to the Diet of 1528." Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', 1951, p. 91.</ref>

<ref name="armitage97–98">Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', pp. 97–98.</ref>

<ref name="armitage98">Angus Armitage, ''The World of Copernicus'', p. 98.</ref>

<ref name="armitage2-62">"He was a linguist with a command of Polish, German and Latin, and he possessed also a knowledge of Greek rare at that period in northeastern Europe and probably had some acquaintance with Italian and Hebrew." Angus Armitage, ''Copernicus, the founder of modern astronomy'', p. 62.</ref>

<ref name="beginnings">{{cite journal|author=Oliver Volckart|title=Early Beginnings of the Quantity Theory of Money and Their Context in Polish and Prussian Monetary Policies, c. 1520–1550|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-history-review_1997-08_50_3/page/430|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=50|series=New Series |date=1997|pages=430–49|issue=3|doi=10.1111/1468-0289.00063 }}</ref>

<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|title=Copernicus, Nicolaus|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105759|accessdate=21 September 2007|edition= |date=2007|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

<ref name="Calendar">{{cite web|url=http://satucket.com/lectionary/Calendar.htm |title=Calendar of the Church Year according to the Episcopal Church |publisher=Satucket.com |date=12 June 2010 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="Cohen">{{cite book|title=Revolution in Science|url=https://archive.org/details/revolutioninscie00iber|author=I. Bernard Cohen|date=1985|page=[https://archive.org/details/revolutioninscie00iber/page/497 497]|publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=0-674-767780}}</ref>

<ref name="copernicus1">{{cite web|author=Paula Findlen|url=http://photo.pds.org:5005/advanced/article?id=ar132860&st=copernicus |title=Copernicus, Nicolaus|publisher=World Book Advanced|date=2013|accessdate=31 May 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="countenanced">Gingerich [[#Reference-Gingerich-2004|(2004, pp.&nbsp;187–89, 201)]]; Koyré [[#Reference-Koyre-1973|(1973, p.&nbsp;94)]]; Kuhn [[#Reference-Kuhn-1957|(1957, p.&nbsp;93)]]; Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-2004|(2004, p.&nbsp;123)]]; Rabin [[#Reference-Rabin-2005|(2005)]]. Robbins [[#Reference-Robbins-1964|(1964, p.x)]], however, includes Copernicus among a list of Renaissance astronomers who "either practiced astrology themselves or countenanced its practice".</ref>

<ref name="Danielson">Danielson [[#CITEREFDanielson2006|(2006)]]{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Davies20">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|title=God's playground. A History of Poland in Two Volumes|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=2005|volume=II|isbn=0-19-925340-4|page=20}}</ref>

<ref name="Davies26">{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|title=God's playground. A History of Poland in Two Volumes|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=2005|volume=II|isbn=0-19-925340-4|page=26}}</ref>

<ref name="DeMarco">{{cite web|author=Peter DeMarco|url=http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2004/04/13/book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe |title=Book quest took him around the globe |publisher= The Boston Globe |date=13 April 2004 |accessdate=3 June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Element112">{{cite web | url = http://www.iupac.org/web/nt/2010-02-20_112_Copernicium | title = Element 112 is Named Copernicium | first = Terrence | last = Renner | publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry | date = 20 February 2010| accessdate =20 February 2010}}{{dead link|date=February 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="encyclopedia">"Copernicus, Nicolaus", ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]'', 1986, vol. 7, pp. 755–56.</ref>

<ref name="encyclopedia42">[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Nicholas_Copernicus.aspx "Nicholas Copernicus"], ''The Columbia Encyclopedia'', sixth edition, 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 18 July 2009.</ref>

<ref name="encyclopedia43">"Copernicus, Nicolaus", ''The Oxford World Encyclopedia'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1998.</ref>

<ref name="exercitations">''Exercitations concerning the Name, Original, Nature, Use, and Continuance of a Day of Sacred Rest'', Exercitation II = An Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews, Exercitation XXXVI, section 16 (''Works'', London, 1850–1855; re-issued, Edinburgh, 1862, XIX, 310).</ref>

<ref name="fox">{{cite web|last=Fox |first=Stuart |url=http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2009-07/element-112-named-copernicum |title=14 July 2009 – Element 112 shall be named "copernicium", http |publisher=//www.popsci.com/ |date=14 July 2009 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="Genetic">{{Cite journal|last=Bogdanowicz |first=W. |date=2009 |title=Genetic identification of putative remains of the famous astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|PNAS]]|pmid=19584252 |volume=106 |issue= 30|pmc=2718376|pages=12279–12282 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901848106|last2=Allen|first2=M.|last3=Branicki|first3=W.|last4=Lembring|first4=M.|last5=Gajewska|first5=M.|last6=Kupiec|first6=T. |bibcode = 2009PNAS..10612279B }}</ref>

<ref name="Germany">{{cite book|last=Burleigh|first=Michael|title=Germany turns eastwards. A study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich|url=https://archive.org/details/germanyturnseast0000burl_s4m9|publisher=CUP Archive|date=1988|isbn=0-521-35120-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/germanyturnseast0000burl_s4m9/page/60 60], 133, 280}}</ref>

<ref name="Gingerich p143">Gingerich (2004), p.&nbsp;143.</ref>

<ref name="goddu">Goddu (2010: 245–6)</ref>

<ref name="google12">"The Watzelrodes—or Watzenrodes—in spite of their rather Germanic name seemed to have been good Poles (enemies of the Teutonic Order)." Koyre, p. 38.</ref>

<ref name="google14">"Lucas was on more friendly terms with his successors, Johann Albert (Jan Olbracht) (from 1492 to 1501), and later Alexander (Aleksander) (from 1501 to 1506), and Sigismund (Zygmunt) I (from 1506)." Gassendi & Thill, p.&nbsp;22.</ref>

<ref name="google16">"He spoke German, Polish and Latin with equal fluency as well as Italian." Stone, p.&nbsp;101.</ref>

<ref name="google17">"He spoke Polish, Latin and Greek." Somerville, p.&nbsp;10.</ref>

<ref name="google18">"''Deutsch war für Kopernikus Muttersprache und Alltagssprache, wenn auch der schriftliche Umgang fast ausschließlich auf Lateinisch erfolgte.''" Carrier, p.&nbsp;192.</ref>

<ref name="google19">"Although great importance has frequently been ascribed to this fact, it does not imply that Copernicus considered himself to be a German. The 'nationes' of a medieval university had nothing in common with nations in the modern sense of the word. Students who were natives of Prussia and Silesia were automatically described as belonging to the Natio Germanorum. Furthmore, at Bologna, this was the 'privileged' nation; consequently, Copernicus had very good reason for inscribing himself on its register." Koyre, p. 21</ref>

<ref name="google2">"The name of the village, not unlike that of the astronomer's family, has been variously spelled. A large German atlas of Silesia, published by Wieland in Nuremberg in 1731, spells it Kopernik." Mizwa, p.&nbsp;36.</ref>

<ref name="google20">"It is important to recognize, however, that the medieval Latin concept of ''natio'', or "nation", referred to the community of feudal lords both in Germany and elsewhere, not to 'the people' in the nineteenth-century democratic or nationalistic sense of the word." Johnson, p.&nbsp;23.</ref>

<ref name="google21">Koestler, 1968, p. 129.</ref>

<ref name="google22">Gassendi & Thill (2002), p. 37.</ref>

<ref name="google24">"Kopernik, Koperek, Kopr and Koprnik in Polish—also similarly in other Slavonic languages—means simply dill such as is used in dill pickling. Be it as it may, although the present writer is more inclined towards the occupational interpretation, it is interesting to note ..." Mizwa, p.&nbsp;37.</ref>

<ref name="google26">Biskup (1973), p. 32</ref>

<ref name="google27">Biskup (1973), pp. 38, 82</ref>

<ref name="google28">Malagola (1878), p. 562–65</ref>

<ref name="google3">Bieńkowska (1973), p. 15</ref>

<ref name="google4">Rybka (1973), p. 23.</ref>

<ref name="google5">Sakolsky (2005), p. 8.</ref>

<ref name="google50">From the Inquisition's sentence of 22 June 1633 [[#Reference-Santillana-1976|(de Santillana]], [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=RABIZBnf_y4C&pg=PA306 1976, pp. 306–10]; [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|Finocchiaro]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#sentence 1989, pp.&nbsp;287–91)]</ref>

<ref name="google6">Biskup (1973), p. 16</ref>

<ref name="guardian">{{cite news|author=Bowcott, Owen|date=21 November 2008|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/nov/21/astronomy-archaeology|title=16th-century skeleton identified as astronomer Copernicus|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=18 January 2010}}</ref>

<ref name=Hirshfeld38>"In 1512, Bishop Watzenrode died suddenly after attending King Sigismund's wedding feast in Kraków. Rumors abounded that the bishop had been poisoned by agents of his long-time foe, the Teutonic Knights." Hirshfeld, p. 38.</ref>

<ref name="Moore50">"In the [enrollment] documents still in existence we find the entry: ''Nicolaus Nicolai de Torunia''." Moore (1994), p. 50.</ref>

<ref name="Moore5262">"[Watzenrode] was also firm, and the Teutonic Knights, who remained a constant menace, did not like him at all; the Grand Master of the order once described him as 'the devil incarnate'. [Watzenrode] was the trusted friend and advisor of three [Polish] kings in succession: John Albert, Alexander (not to be confused with the poisoning pope), and Sigismund; and his influence greatly strengthened the ties between Warmia and Poland proper." Moore (1994), pp. 52, 62.</ref>

<ref name="NCGes">"Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe Bd. VI: Urkunden, Akten und NachrichtenDocumenta Copernicana – Urkunden, Akten und Nachrichten, alle erhaltenen Urkunden und Akten zur Familiengeschichte, zur Biographie und Tätigkeitsfeldern von Copernicus, 1996, {{ISBN|978-3-05-003009-8}} [5]'', pp. 62–63.</ref>

<ref name="psb3">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 3.</ref>

<ref name="psb4-5">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), pp. 4–5.</ref>

<ref name="psb5">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 5.</ref>

<ref name="psb5-6">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), pp. 5–6.</ref>

<ref name="psb6">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 6.</ref>

<ref name="psb7">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 7.</ref>

<ref name="psb7-8">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), pp. 7–8.</ref>

<ref name="psb9">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 9.</ref>

<ref name="psb11">Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz (1969), p. 11.</ref>

<ref name="Kobe">{{cite journal|author=Donald H. Kobe|title=Copernicus and Martin Luther: An Encounter Between Science and Religion|journal=American Journal of Physics|volume=66|issue=3|page=190|doi=10.1119/1.18844|date=1998|bibcode = 1998AmJPh..66..190K }}</ref>

<ref name="Maurice">{{cite book|title=Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the Two Affairs|author=Maurice A. Finocchiaro|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|date=2010}} {{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Milosz37">{{cite book|last=Miłosz|first=Czesław|title=The history of Polish literature|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofpolishl0002mios|publisher=University of California Press|date=1983|edition=2|isbn=0-520-04477-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofpolishl0002mios/page/37 37]}}</ref>

<ref name="newadvent">[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04352b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia''].</ref>

<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2010/05/22/world/AP-EU-Poland-Copernicus-Reburied.html|title=Astronomer Copernicus Reburied as Hero|publisher=New York Times|date=22 May 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="omission of general ban">Heilbron [[#Reference-Heilbron-2005|(2005, p. 307)]]; Coyne [[#Reference-Coyne-2005|(2005, p. 347)]].</ref>

<ref name="omission of specific ban">McMullin [[#Reference-McMullin-2005|(2005, p. 6)]]; Coyne [[#Reference-Coyne-2005|(2005, pp.&nbsp;346–47)]].</ref>

<ref name="Polish Literature p. 38">[[Czesław Miłosz]], ''The History of Polish Literature'', p. 38.</ref>

<ref name="Polish tests">{{cite news |author=Easton, Adam |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7740908.stm |title=Polish tests 'confirm Copernicus' |accessdate=18 January 2010 |work=BBC News |date= 21 November 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="reference">Rabin [[#Reference-Rabin-2005|(2005)]].</ref>

<ref name="reference36">[[#Reference-Kuhn-1957|Kuhn, 1957, pp. 187–88]].</ref>

<ref name="reference40">Koestler [[#Reference-Koestler-1963|(1959, p. 191)]].</ref>

<ref name="reference46">Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, pp. 151–59)]].</ref>

<ref name="reference47">Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, p. 158)]].</ref>

<ref name="Repcheck">Repcheck (2007), pp. 79, 78, 184, 186.</ref>

<ref name="repcheck66">Repcheck (2007), p. 66.</ref>

<ref name="Rivka">{{cite book|title=Galileo and the Church|url=https://archive.org/details/galileochurchpol0000feld|author=Rivka Feldhay|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=1995}} {{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="Rosen">{{cite journal|author=Edward Rosen|title=Calvin's Attitude toward Copernicus|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=21|date=1960|pages=431–41|issue=3|doi=10.2307/2708147}}</ref>

<ref name="Rosen1995 p. 127">[[#Reference-Rosen-1995|Rosen]] (1995, [http://books.google.com/books?id=C_a1kTvuZ1MC&pg=PA127#v=onepage&f=false p. 127]).</ref>

<ref name="Rudnicki 2006">{{cite journal | last = Rudnicki | first = Konrad |date=November–December 2006 | title = The Genuine Copernican Cosmological Principle | journal=Southern Cross Review | pages = note 2 | url = http://southerncrossreview.org/50/rudnicki1.htm | accessdate =21 January 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="sedlar">Sedlar (1994).</ref>

<ref name="seven assumptions">[[#Reference-Rosen-2004|Rosen (2004)]], [http://books.google.com/books?id=ceSnipu4MykC&pg=PA58 pp.&nbsp;58–59]</ref>

<ref name="Stephen Mizwa 1943, p. 38">Mizwa, 1943, p.&nbsp;38.</ref>

<ref name="successors">Rosen (1995) {{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="gravemystery">{{Cite journal |last=Gingerich |first=O. |date=2009 |title=The Copernicus grave mystery |journal=PNAS |volume=106 |issue= 30|pages=12215–12216 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0907491106 |pmid=19622737 |pmc=2718392 |bibcode = 2009PNAS..10612215G }}</ref>

<ref name="watzenrode">{{BBKL|w/watzenrode|autor=Wojciech Iwanczak|artikel=Watzenrode, Lucas|band=13|spalte=389–393}}</ref>

<ref name="webexhibits">{{cite web|url=http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html|title=Schönberg, Nicholas, ''Letter to Nicolaus Copernicus'', translated by Edward Rosen}}</ref>

<ref name="weissenbacher">Weissenbacher (2009), p. 170.</ref>

<ref name="Westman">{{cite book|title=The Copernican Question: Prognostication, Skepticism, and Celestial Order|author=Robert S. Westman|publisher=University of California Press|date=2011|location=Los Angeles, CA}} {{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

<ref name="wikisource">[http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Coppernicus_aus_Thorn_%C3%BCber_die_Kreisbewegungen_der_Weltk%C3%B6rper/Vorwort#Orthographie Maximilian Curtze, ''Ueber die Orthographie des Namens Coppernicus'', 1879]</ref>
-->
}}

== Literatura ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The World of Copernicus
 | author=Armitage, Angus
 | publisher=Mentor Books
 | date= 1951
 | isbn=
 | location= New York, NY
 | ref= Reference-Armitage-1951}}
* {{cite book
|author=Armitage, Angus
|title=Copernicus, the founder of modern astronomy
|url=https://archive.org/details/copernicusfounde0000armi
|publisher=Dorset Press
|date=1990
|isbn=978-0-88029-553-6}}
* {{cite book|ref=harv 
 | title=The development of mathematics
 |url=https://archive.org/details/developmentofmat0000bell_x2o8
 | last=Bell
 | first=Eric Temple
 | authorlink= 
 | publisher=Dover Publications
 | date=1992
 | origyear=1940
 | location=New York
 | isbn=978-0-486-27239-9}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of His Birth, 1473–1973''
 | author=Bieńkowska, Barbara
 | publisher=Springer
 | date = 1973
 | isbn = 90-277-0353-1}}
*{{cite book|author=Marian Biskup|title=Regesta Copernicana: (calendar of Copernicus' papers).|language=Polish|date=1973|publisher=Ossolineum}}
*{{cite book|author=Martin Carrier|title=Nikolaus Kopernikus|date=2001|publisher=C.H.Beck|isbn=978-3-406-47577-1}}
* {{cite book
 | title= The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth
 | author=Coyne, George V., S.J.
 | others= In McMullin (2005, pp. 340–59)
 | date= 2005
 | ref=Reference-Coyne-2005}}
* {{cite book
|last=Danielson
|first=Dennis Richard
|title=The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution
|url=https://archive.org/details/firstcopernicang00dani
|publisher=Walker & Company
|location=New York
|date=2006
|ref=harv
|isbn=0-8027-1530-3
}}
* Norman Davies, ''God's Playground: A History of Poland'', 2 vols., New York, Columbia University Press, 1982, {{ISBN|0-231-04327-9}}.
* Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''Polski słownik biograficzny'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, Polish Academy of Sciences, 1969, pp.&nbsp;3–16.
* {{cite book | title= A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler
 | last= Dreyer
 | first= John Louis Emil
 | authorlink= 
 | publisher=Dover Publications
 | date= 1953
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 | url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft
 | location= New York, NY
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* {{cite book
 | title= The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial
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* {{cite book
 | title = The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History
 | url = https://archive.org/details/galileoaffair00uisi
 | author=Finocchiaro, Maurice A.
 | publisher=[[University of California Press]]
 | date = 1989
 | location = Berkeley, CA
 | isbn = 0-520-06662-6
 | ref = Reference-Finocchiaro-1989}}
* <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Gagne-2005">{{cite web
 |title       = Texts from ''The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History'' edited and translated by Maurice A. Finocchiaro
 |author      = Gagné, Marc
 |publisher   = West Chester University course ESS 362/562 in History of Astronomy
 |date        = 2005
 |accessdate  = 15 January 2008
 |url         = http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html
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 |archivedate = 2007-09-30
 |deadurl     = no
}} (Extracts from Finocchiaro (1989))
*{{cite book|author1=Pierre Gassendi|author2=Olivier Thill|title=The Life of Copernicus 1473–1543|date=September 2002|publisher=Xulon Press|isbn=978-1-59160-193-7}}
* {{cite book
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 | author= Gingerich, Owen 
 | publisher=William Heinemann
 | date = 2004
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* {{cite book
   |last=Goddu
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   |date=2010
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   |isbn=978-90-04-18107-6
}}
* {{cite book
| title = The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500–1800
| url = https://archive.org/details/riseofscientific0000unse_d7c7
| author=Goodman, David C.
|author2=Russell, Colin A.
| publisher=Hodder Arnold H&S
| date = 1991
| isbn = 0-340-55861-X}}
* {{cite book |last= Heath
              |first= Sir Thomas
              |authorlink=  
              |title= Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus ; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and notes
              |url= http://www.archive.org/details/aristarchusofsam00heatuoft
              |date= 1913
              |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
              |location= London
              |ref= Reference-Heath-1913}}
*{{cite book|author=Alan W. Hirshfeld|title=Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos|date=1 May 2002|publisher=Henry Holt and Company|isbn=978-0-8050-7133-7}}
* {{cite book
 | title = Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo
 | author=Heilbron, John L.
 | others = In McMullin (2005, pp. 279–322) 
 | date = 2005
 | ref = Reference-Heilbron-2005}}
* {{cite book|author=Michael Hoskin|title=The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy|date=18 March 1999|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-57600-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Lonnie Johnson|title=Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716|date=28 September 1996|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], USA|isbn=978-0-19-802607-5}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe
 | url = https://archive.org/details/sleepwalkers00arth
 | last=Koestler
 | first=Arthur
 | author-link= 
 | publisher=Grosset & Dunlap
 | date = 1963
 | origyear = 1959
 | isbn = 0-448-00159-4
 | location = New York, NY
 | ref = Reference-Koestler-1963}} Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London)
* {{cite book|author=Arthur Koestler|title=The Sleepwalkers|date=1968|publisher=Macmillan}}
* {{cite book
 | title = Nicolaus Copernicus zum 500. Geburtstag
 | author=Koeppen, Hans
 | display-authors=etal
 | publisher=Böhlau Verlag
 | date = 1973
 | isbn = 3-412-83573-0}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli
 | author= Koyré, Alexandre 
 | publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]
 | date = 1973
 | isbn = 0-8014-0504-1
 | location = Ithaca, NY
 | ref = Reference-Koyre-1973}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought
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 | author= Kuhn, Thomas
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 | date = 1957
 | oclc = 535467
 | location = Cambridge, MA
 | ref = Reference-Kuhn-1957}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Lindberg | first = David C. | author-link =  | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | author2-link =  | title = Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_church-history_1986-09_55_3/page/338 | journal=Church History | volume = 55 | issue = 3 | pages = 338–354 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | date = 1986 | doi = 10.2307/3166822 | postscript = . | jstor = 3166822|issn = 0009-6407 }}
* {{cite book | title= From Eudoxus to Einstein: A History of Mathematical Astronomy
 | author=Linton, Christopher M.
 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | date= 2004
 | location= Cambridge
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 | ref=Reference-Linton-2004}}
* {{cite book|author=Carlo Malagola|title=Della vita e delle opere di Antonio Urceo detto Codro: studi e ricerch|date=1878|publisher=Fava e Garagnani}}
* {{cite book| title= Manetho Ptolemy Tetrabiblos
| author1= Manetho
| author2= Ptolemy
| others= Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by W.G.Waddell and F.E.Robbins PhD
| date= 1964
| origyear= 1940
| location= London
| publisher=William Heinemann
| ref= Reference-Waddell&Robbins-1964
}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Church and Galileo
 | author=McMullin, Ernan, ed.
 | publisher=[[University of Notre Dame Press]]
 | date = 2005
 | location = Notre Dame, IN
 | isbn = 0-268-03483-4
 | ref = Reference-McMullin-2005}}
* Miłosz, Czesław, ''The History of Polish Literature'', second edition, Berkeley, [[University of California Press]], 1969, {{ISBN|0-520-04477-0}}.
* Mizwa, Stephen, ''Nicolaus Copernicus, 1543–1943'', Kessinger Publishing, 1943.
* {{cite book
|author=Moore, Patrick
|title=The great astronomical revolution 1543–1687 and the Space Age epilogue
|date=1994
|publisher=Albion
|isbn=978-1-898563-18-1}}
* {{cite book| title= Tetrabiblos
| last= Ptolemy
| first= Claudius
| others= Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by F.E.Robbins PhD
| date= 1964
| origyear= 1940
| location= London
| publisher=William Heinemann
| ref= Reference-Robbins-1964
}}
* <cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Rabin-2005">{{cite web
 | title = ''Copernicus''
 | author=Rabin, Sheila
 | publisher=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (summer 2005 edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
 | date = 2005
 | accessdate =26 May 2008
 | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2005/entries/copernicus/}}
* {{cite book
|author=Repcheck, Jack
|title=Copernicus' Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began
|url=https://archive.org/details/copernicussecret00repc
|publisher=Simon & Schuster
|location=New York
|date=2007
|isbn=0-7432-8951-X
}}
* {{cite book
 | title = Copernicus and his Successors
 | url = https://archive.org/details/copernicushissuc0000rose
 | author=Rosen, Edward
 | publisher=Hambledon Press
 | date = 1995
 | isbn = 1-85285-071-X
 | location = London
 | ref = Reference-Rosen-1995}}
* {{cite book
 | title = Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; The Letter against Werner; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus
 | url = https://archive.org/details/threecopernicant0000cope_t3u1
 | author=Rosen, Edward (translator)
 | publisher=Dover Publications
 | edition = Second Edition, revised
 | date = 2004
 | origyear = 1939
 | isbn = 0-486-43605-5
 | location = New York, NY
 | ref = Reference-Rosen-2004}}
* {{cite book
 | title = Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians
 | author= Russell, Jeffrey Burton
 | publisher=Praeger
 | date = 1997
 | origyear = 1991
 | isbn = 0-275-95904-X
 | location = New York, NY
 | ref = Reference-Russell-1997}}
*{{cite book|title=The Review of the Polish Academy of Sciences|date=1973|publisher="Ossolineum", the Polish Academy of Sciences Press}}
*{{cite book|author=Josh Sakolsky|title=Copernicus And Modern Astronomy|date=1 October 2004|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4042-0305-1}}
* {{cite book| title= The Crime of Galileo
           | url= https://archive.org/details/crimeofgalileo0000unse
           | first=Giorgio
           | last=de Santillana
           | authorlink= 
           | origyear= 1955
           | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
           | date= 1976
           | type=Midway reprint
           | location = Chicago, Ill
           | isbn= 0-226-73481-1
           | ref= Reference-Santillana-1976}}
* {{cite book
 | title = East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 1000–1500
 | url = https://archive.org/details/eastcentraleurop0003sedl
 | author=Sedlar, Jean W.
 | publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]
 | isbn = 0-295-97290-4
 | date = 1994}}
*{{cite book|author=Barbara A. Somervill|title=Nicolaus Copernicus: Father Of Modern Astronomy|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Capstone|isbn=978-0-7565-0812-8}}
*{{cite book|author=Daniel Stone|title=The Polish-Lithuanian State: 1386–1795|url=https://archive.org/details/polishlithuanian0000ston|date=2001|publisher=[[University of Washington Press]]|isbn=978-0-295-98093-5}}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Lord of Uraniborg
 | first= Victor E.
 | last= Thoren
 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
 | date = 1990
 | isbn = 0-521-35158-8
 | location = Cambridge
 | ref = thoren-1990}} (A biography of Danish astronomer and alchemist Tycho Brahe.)
*{{cite book|author=Manfred Weissenbacher|title=Sources of Power: How Energy Forges Human History|date=September 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-35626-1}}
{{refend}}

== Vanjske veze ==
{{Commonscat|Nicolaus Copernicus}}
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{Istorijska biblioteka|art2:kopernik-u-ranim-biografijama |Nikola Kopernik u delima ranih biografa}}
* {{Istorijska biblioteka|art2:kopernikova-biografija-polje-sukobljenih-ideja |Kopernikove biografije kao polje polemika}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Nicolaus+Copernicus | name=Nicolaus Copernicus}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Copernicus,+Nicolaus | name=Nicolaus Copernicus}}
* [http://www.bj.uj.edu.pl/bjmanus/revol/titlpg_e.html De Revolutionibus, autograph manuscript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050728153447/http://www.bj.uj.edu.pl/bjmanus/revol/titlpg_e.html |date=2005-07-28 }} – Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University
* {{pl icon}} [http://domwarminski.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19 Polish translations of letters written by Copernicus in Latin or German] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018072646/http://domwarminski.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=19 |date=2015-10-18 }}
* [http://hos.ou.edu/galleries//16thCentury/Copernicus/ Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130721202608/http://hos.ou.edu/galleries//16thCentury/Copernicus/ |date=2013-07-21 }} High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Nicolaus Copernicus in .jpg and .tiff format.
* [http://www.visittorun.pl/index.php?strona=6 Copernicus in Torun]
* [http://copernicus.torun.pl/en/ Nicolaus Copernicus Thorunensis] by the [http://copernicus.torun.pl/en/project/ Copernican Academic Portal]
* [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang01.htm Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Frombork]
* Portraits of Copernicus: [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9913250/ Copernicus's face reconstructed]; [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Copernicus.html Portrait] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927183826/http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Copernicus.html |date=2007-09-27 }}; [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm Nicolaus Copernicus]
* [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/coperastrol.html Copernicus and Astrology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121212438/http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/coperastrol.html |date=2009-01-21 }}
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4405958.stm 'Body of Copernicus' identified] – BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull
* [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money2.htm Nicolaus Copernicus on the 1000 Polish Zloty banknote.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205031910/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money2.htm |date=2009-02-05 }}
* [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f08.jpg Copernicus's model for Mars ]
* [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/02f27.jpg Retrograde Motion ]
* [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f04.jpg Copernicus's explanation for retrograde motion]
* [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f07.jpg Geometry of Maximum Elongation]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/copernican.html Copernican Model]
* [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm Portraits of Nicolaus Copernicus]
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/copernican_system.html The Copernican Universe from the De Revolutionibus]
* [http://digital.lib.lehigh.edu/planets/cop.php?num=F.1&exp=false&lang=lat&CISOPTR=0&limit=cop&view=full De Revolutionibus, 1543 first edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314004048/http://digital.lib.lehigh.edu/planets/cop.php?num=F.1&exp=false&lang=lat&CISOPTR=0&limit=cop&view=full |date=2009-03-14 }} – Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University
* [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html The text of the De Revolutionibus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306173547/http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html |date=2015-03-06 }}
* [http://pau.krakow.pl/index.php/en/2008031765/Prizes-by-PAU/Page-2.html Nicolaus Copernicus Prize, founded by the City of Kraków] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425004549/http://pau.krakow.pl/index.php/en/2008031765/Prizes-by-PAU/Page-2.html |date=2009-04-25 }}, awarded since 1995
* {{en icon}} {{de icon}} {{pl icon}} German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists ([http://www.dfg.de/en/funded_projects/prizewinners/copernicus_award/index.html DFG website])
* {{en icon}} {{de icon}} {{pl icon}} [http://www.buero-kopernikus.org/en/home/31/0/0 Büro Kopernikus – An initiative of German Federal Cultural Foundation]
* {{de icon}} {{pl icon}} [http://www.bkherne.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=304&Itemid=272 German-Polish school project on Copernicus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407090910/http://www.bkherne.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=304&Itemid=272 |date=2014-04-07 }}
{{refend}}

{{Normativna kontrola}}

{{Lifetime|1473|1543|Kopernik, Nikola}}

[[Kategorija:Poljski naučnici]]
[[Kategorija:Astronomi]]
[[Kategorija:Isusovci]]
[[Kategorija:Biografije, Toruń]]
[[Kategorija:Biografije, Padova]]
[[Kategorija:Studenti Univerziteta u Padovi]]